Doctor of Philosophy
From The UCSC Wikipedia Trust Project
Doctor of Philosophy (from Greek Διδάκτωρ Φιλοσοφίας, meaning "Teacher of Philosophy"), typically abbreviated Ph.D., for the Latin "Philosophiæ Doctor" or D.Phil., for "Doctor philosophiæ", is an advanced academic degree. In the English-speaking world it has become the commonest designation for a "research doctorate" (i.e., a doctorate granted for advanced study and original research in an some field).
European universities in the Middle Ages generally placed all academic disciplines outside the fields of theology, medicine and law under the broad heading of "philosophy." The degree of Doctor of Philosophy was the most junior of the so-called "higher doctorates," generally granted to select and very well-established scholars. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries English-speaking universities adopted the German practice of granting the degree to younger students who had completed a prescribed course of study and successfully defended a dissertation containing original research in the sciences or the humanities. This usage has become increasingly widespread, and the Ph.D. is now often considered a requisite for pursing an academic career in most fields. Many more students receive Ph.D.'s, however, than will eventually join a university faculty.
In recent years, universities in the non-English speaking world have generally adopted similar standards to those of the Anglophone Ph.D. for their own research doctorates, though the term "doctor of philosophy" is not generally applied to graduates in disciplines other than philosophy itself. These degrees, however, are sometimes colloquially identified in English as Ph.D.'s.
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History of the Ph.D.
The doctorate was originally a degree granted by a university to learned individuals who had achieved the approval of their peers and who had demonstrated a long and productive career in the field of philosophy. The appellation of "Doctor" (from Latin: doceo, docere: to teach) was usually awarded only when the individual was in middle age. It indicated a life dedicated to learning, to knowledge, and to the spread of knowledge.
The Ph.D. degree was popularised in the 19th century at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin as a degree to be granted to someone who had undertaken original research in the sciences or humanities. From there it spread to the United States, arriving at Yale University in 1861, to Canada in 1900, and then to the United Kingdom in 1921. This displaced the existing Doctor of Philosophy degree in some Universities; for instance, the D.Phil. (higher doctorate in the faculty of philosophy) at the University of St Andrews was discontinued and replaced with the Ph.D. (research doctorate). However, some UK universities such as Oxford, Buckingham and Sussex (and, until a few years ago, York) retain the D.Phil. abbreviation for their research degrees, as do some universities in New Zealand.
The book by Renate Simpson, reference 3, describes the worldwide spread in more detail and the reasons for this development.
Australia
Admission
Admission to a Ph.D. program within Australia requires the prospective student to have completed a Bachelor's Degree with an Honours component. In most disciplines, Honours involves an extra year of study including a large research component in addition to coursework. To obtain a Ph.D. position, students must usually gain a First Class Honours, but may sometimes be admitted with a high Second Class Honours (known as a 2A, or Second Class Honours Division I).
Funding
In Australia, Ph.D. students are quite often offered a scholarship to study their Ph.D. The most common of these is the Australian Postgraduate Award (APA) scholarship, which provides a living stipend to students of approximately AU$19,000 a year (tax free). Most universities also offer a similar scholarship that matches the APA amount, but are funded by the university. In recent years, with the tightening of research funding in Australia, these scholarships have become increasingly hard to obtain. In addition to the more common APA and University scholarships, Australian students also have other sources of funding in their Ph.D. These could include, but are not limited to, scholarships offered by schools, research centres and commercial enterprise. For the latter, the amount is determined between the university and the organisation, but is quite often set at the APA (Industry) rate, roughly AU$7,000 more than the usual APA rate. Australian students are often also able to tutor undergraduate classes (much like a teaching assistant in the USA) to generate income. An Australian Ph.D. scholarship is paid for a duration of 3 years, while a 6 month extension is usually possible upon citing delays out of the control of the student. Completion of a Ph.D. is results dependent, and often students are unable to finish during the tenure of the scholarship.
Canada
Admission
Admission to a Ph.D. program at a Canadian university normally requires completion of a Master's degree in a related field, with sufficiently high grades (usually at least an A average, though this requirement may be substantially higher in some schools, departments, faculties or fields), and proven research ability. In exceptional cases, a student may progress directly from an Honours Bachelor's degree to a Ph.D. program. The student must usually submit an application package including a research proposal, letters of reference, transcripts, and a sample of the student's writing.
At English-speaking universities, students may also be required to demonstrate English-language ability, usually via an acceptable score on a standard examination. Depending on the field, the student may also be required to demonstrate ability in one or more additional language(s). Prospective students applying to French-speaking universities may also have to demonstrate at least some English-language ability.
Funding
While some students work outside the university (or at student jobs within the university), in some programs students are advised (or must agree) not to devote more than twelve hours per week to activities outside of their studies.
At some Canadian universities, most Ph.D. students receive an award equivalent to the tuition amount for the first four years (this is sometimes called a tuition deferral). Other sources of funding include teaching assistantships and research assistantships; at least some experience as a teaching assistant is encouraged in many programs. Additionally, some programs require all Ph.D. candidates to teach a class or classes, which may be done under the supervision of regular faculty.
Besides these sources of funding, there are also various scholarships, bursaries and awards available.
Requirements for completion
In general, the first two years of study are devoted to completion of coursework and the comprehensive examinations. At this stage, the student is known as a "Ph.D. student." It is usually expected that the student will have completed most of his or her required coursework by the end of this stage, and is usually required that by the end of thirty-six months after the first registration, the student will have successfully completed the comprehensive exams.
Upon successful completion of the comprehensive exams, the student becomes known as a "Ph.D. candidate." From this stage on, the bulk of the student's time will be devoted to his or her own research, culminating in the completion of a Ph.D. "thesis," or "dissertation." The final requirement is for a public thesis defence.
At most Canadian universities, the time needed to complete a Ph.D. typically ranges from four to six years. It is, however, not uncommon for students to be unable to complete all the requirements within six years, particularly given that funding packages often support students for only four or five years; many departments will allow program extensions at the discretion of the thesis supervisor and/or department chair, and alternate arrangements exist whereby a student is allowed to let their registration in the program lapse at the end of six years and re-register once the thesis is completed in draft form.
France
Admission
Engineering schools students passed their "High school + 5 years" studies with a "diplôme d'ingénieur". University Students had to choose previously between a research career Diplôme d'études approfondies (DEA) and a practical one (DESS) in the determination of their "High school + 5 years" degree (BAC+5), both equivalents to the Master's degree. The new European Bologna process will combine these three diplomas into one Master's degree. Admission to a Doctorat programme at a French university normally requires completion of one of these four diplomas in a related field, with sufficiently high grades. The student must usually submit an application package including a research proposal, transcripts, and a sample of the student's writing, i.e. his/her license and masters' theses.
Foreign students may also be required to demonstrate French-language ability, usually via an acceptable score on a standard examination, as well for English.
Funding
Grants are usually defined for 3 years. There are different sources of grants and fellowships.
The main source is public, managed by the related universities. A high level of discrimination between topics and disciplines exists between social and technical sciences: a geography DEA preparation class receives only one 3-year scholarship for 60 candidates when a biomolecular science class receives one for 2 candidates. A private company funded program, the "CIFRE" was created for about 10 years. In this programme a company makes an agreement with a candidate for the 3-year Doctorat to be completed. It supports many management and technology Doctorat candidates. However, there is some controversy about the reliability of the results of such a thesis due to confidentiality problems.
While some students work outside the university (or at student jobs within the university), in some programmes students are advised (or must agree) not to devote more than twelve hours per week to activities outside of their studies. However, teaching assistantships are still not common in French universities.
Besides these sources of funding there are also various scholarships, bursaries and awards available.
Requirements for completion
In general, there are no exams or qualifiers to pass during the three years of study. The final requirement is a public thesis defence. The minimum amount of time needed to complete a Doctorat is two years, and the maximum is six.
Germany
History
In early university history the Doctorate was awarded as a first degree. It has since evolved into a research degree.
In German speaking countries, most Eastern European countries, the former Soviet Union, most parts of Africa, Asia, and many Spanish speaking countries the corresponding degree is simply called "Doctor" and is distinguished by subject area with a Latin suffix (e.g. "Dr.med." — doctor medicinæ — which is not equal to a M.D., "Dr.rer.nat" — doctor rerum naturalium (Doctor of Science), "Dr. phil." — doctor philosophiæ etc.).
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United Kingdom
Admission
In principle, a university is free to admit anyone to a Ph.D. programme, however in practice admission is usually conditional on the prospective student having successfully completed an undergraduate degree with at least upper second class honours, or a postgraduate master's degree.
Funding
In the UK, funding for Ph.D. students is often provided by government-funded Research Councils or the ESF. The funding usually takes the form of a tax-free bursary which consists of tuition fees together with a stipend of around GBP12,300 per year for three years (rising to £14,300 per year in London), whether or not the degree continues for longer. Research Council funding is typically allocated to an academic department which then allocate it to students, although restrictions as to the minimum acceptable qualifications are normally specified. These minimum requirements are typically a first degree with upper second class honours, although successful completion of a postgraduate master's degree is usually counted as raising the class of the first degree by one division for these purposes. However, the availability of funding in many disciplines (especially humanities, social studies, and pure science[citation needed] subjects) means that in practice only those with first class honours (or equivalent) are likely to receive grants.
Many students who are not in receipt of external funding may choose to undertake the degree part time, thus reducing the tuition fees, as well as creating free time in which to earn money for subsistence.
Students may also take part in tutoring, work as research assistants, or (occasionally) deliver lectures, at a rate of typically GBP10 per hour, either to supplement existing income or as a sole means of funding.
Completion
Funding usually lasts for three years full-time (this period is usually extended pro rata for part-time students) and the thesis must usually be submitted within seven years. Since the early 1990s, the UK funding councils have adopted a policy of penalising the departments of students who fail to submit their theses in four years (or equivalent) by reducing the number of funded places in subsequent years.
Other doctorates
In the United Kingdom Ph.D.s are distinct from other doctorates, most notably the higher doctorates such as D.Litt. (Doctor of Letters) or D.Sc. (Doctor of Science), which are by a committee on the basis of a long record of research and publication.
Recent years have seen the introduction of vocational doctorates, most notably in the fields of engineering (Eng.D.), education (Ed.D.), clinical psychology (D.Clin.Psych.) and business administration (D.B.A.). These typically have a more formal taught component, as well as a research component roughly equivalent to that of a Ph.D. This research component typically takes the form of a portfolio of two or three smaller research studies, rather than a single dissertation focusing on one larger academic project.
United States
Overview
In the United States, the Ph.D. is the highest academic degree awarded by universities. US students undergo a series of three phases in the course of their doctoral work: The first phase consists of course work in the student's field of study and requires one to three years to complete. This is followed by preliminary or comprehensive examination and/or a series of cumulative examinations where the emphasis is on breadth rather than depth of knowledge. Finally, another two to four years is usually required for the composition of a substantial and original contribution to human knowledge embodied in a written dissertation that is typically 250 to 450 pages in length. Dissertations generally consist of (i) a comprehensive literature review, (ii) an outline of methodology, and (iii) several chapters of scientific, social, historical, philosophical, or literary analysis. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination by his or her supervisor and a committee of academics with expertise in the given discipline. Students who have met all requirements except for the dissertation are frequently called ABDs, short for all but dissertation.
In most academic fields of research a doctoral degree is essential for employment. In some fields, newly-graduated Ph.D.s are unlikely to obtain a tenure-track post and are compelled to undertake one or more postdoctoral positions. However, in recent years, in light of large scale faculty retirement in North American universities and colleges, academic employment prospects for freshly minted PhD graduates are improving.
While the Ph.D. is the most common doctoral degree in the United States, it is often misunderstood to be synonymous with the term "doctorate". The U.S. Department of Education and the National Science Foundation recognize numerous doctoral degrees as "equivalent", and do not discriminate between them (e.g., Doctor of Arts (D.A.), Doctor of Musical Arts (D.M.A.), Doctor of Education (Ed.D.), Doctor of Theology (Th.D.), Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A.). See this list of equivalent doctorates).
Admission
Admission to a Ph.D. program in the United States is highly competitive. At minimum, applicants are typically required to have a Bachelors Degree in a relevant field, reasonably high grades, several letters of recommendation, and a satisfactory performance on the Graduate Record Exam (GRE). Although specific requirements vary, programs at well-regarded research-oriented universities usually require significantly more of their applicants.
Master's degree "in passing"
As applicants to many Ph.D. programs are not required to have Master's Degrees, many programs award a M.A. or M.S. degree "in passing," or "in course." These degrees are awarded based on previously-completed work, but are not "terminal" degrees in that the recipient is expected to continue his or her education toward the Ph.D. Students who receive such Master's Degrees are usually required to complete a certain amount of coursework and a master's thesis. Depending on the specific program, masters-in-passing degrees can be either mandatory or optional. Not all Ph.D. students choose to complete the additional requirements necessary for the M.A. or M.S. if such requirements are not mandated by their programs. Those students will simply obtain the Ph.D. at the end of their graduate study.
Time
Depending on the specific field of study, completion of a Ph.D. program usually takes between four and eight years after the Bachelors Degree; those students who begin a Ph.D. program with a Master's Degree may complete their Ph.D. a year or two sooner.[1] As Ph.D. programs typically lack the formal structure of undergraduate education, there are significant individual differences in the time taken to complete the degree. Many US universities have set a 10-year limit for students in Ph.D. programs, or refuse to consider graduate credit older than ten years as counting towards a Ph.D. Similarly, students may be required to re-take the comprehensive exam if they do not defend their dissertations within five years of taking it.
Funding
Doctoral students are usually discouraged from engaging in external employment during the course of their graduate training. As a result, Ph.D. students at U.S. universities typically receive a tuition waiver and some form of annual stipend. The source and amount of funding varies from field to field and university to university. Many U.S. graduate students work as teaching assistants or research assistants while they are doctoral students, or obtain grants or fellowships from government research agencies such as the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health. Many Ivy League and other well-endowed universities provide funding for the entire duration of the course or for most of it.
See also
- Doctorate - A general term describing a set of degrees equivalent to the Ph.D.
- Terminal degree - The highest degree awarded in a field, usually a Ph.D.
- Graduate student - A student pursuing education past the bachelor's degree, such as a Ph.D.
- C.Phil. (also ABD) - Unofficial term for graduate student who has completed all Ph.D. coursework, but has yet to defend his or her dissertation.
- Dottorato di ricerca - Italian equivalent of Ph.D.
- Kandidat - Degree awarded by USSR and post-Soviet states.
- Licentiate - Degree awarded in various countries, including Portugal, Belgium, the UK, Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, Finland, Australia, and New Zealand.
Notes
- ↑ "Research Doctorate Programmes", US Department of Education, Retrieved 6/18/06.
References
- Estelle M Phillips and Derek. S. Pugh. How to Get a Ph.D.: A Handbook for Students and Their Supervisors ISBN 0-335-20550-X,
- MacGillivray, Alex; Potts, Gareth; Raymond, Polly. Secrets of Their Success (London: New Economics Foundation, 2002)
- Simpson, Renate. How the PhD came to Britain: A century of struggle for postgraduate education, Society for Research into Higher Education, Guildford (1983)
External links
- The Mathematics PhD in the United Kingdom: Notes on its History Contains information/links of more general relevance than mathematics.
- A community portal for PhD students and PhD holders Enables scientists across disciplines to discuss and promote their research.