United States Marine Corps
From The UCSC Wikipedia Trust Project
Template:US Marine CorpsThe United States Marine Corps (USMC) is a branch of the U.S. military responsible for providing power projection from the sea,[1] utilizing the mobility of the U.S. Navy to rapidly deliver combined-arms task forces to global crises. Alongside the U.S. Navy, the Marine Corps operates under the United States Department of the Navy.
Originally organized as the Continental Marines on November 10th, 1775 as naval infantry, the Marine Corps has evolved its mission with changing military doctrine and American foreign policy. The Marine Corps has served in every American armed conflict including the Revolutionary War. It attained prominence in the 20th century when its theories and practice of amphibious warfare proved prescient, and ultimately formed a cornerstone of the Pacific campaign of World War II.[2] By the early 20th century, the Marine Corps had become the dominant theorist and practitioner of amphibious warfare. Its ability to rapidly respond to regional crises has made and continues to make it an important body in the implementation and execution of American foreign policy.[3]
The United States Marine Corps, with 180,000 active duty and 40,000 reserve Marines as of 2005, is the smallest of the United States' armed forces in the Department of Defense (the United States Coast Guard, about one fifth the size of the Marine Corps, is under the Department of Homeland Security). The Corps is nonetheless larger than the entire armed forces of many significant military powers; for example, it is larger than the Israeli Defense Forces.[4][5]
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Mission
The United States Marine Corps serves as an amphibious force-in-readiness. Today, it has three primary areas of responsibility as outlined in Template:UnitedStatesCode, originally introduced under the National Security Act of 1947:
- The seizure or defense of advanced naval bases and other land operations to support naval campaigns;
- The development of tactics, technique, and equipment used by amphibious landing forces; and
- "Such other duties as the President may direct."
The quoted clause, while seemingly a consequence of the President's position as Commander-in-Chief, is a codification of the expeditionary duties of the Marine Corps. It derives from similar language in the Congressional Acts "For the Better Organization of the Marine Corps" of 1834, and "Establishing and Organizing a Marine Corps" of 1798. In 1951, the House of Representatives Armed Services Committee called the clause "one of the most important statutory—and traditional—functions of the Marine Corps". It noted that the Corps has more often than not performed actions of a non-naval nature, including its famous actions in the War of 1812, at Tripoli, Chapultepec (during the Mexican-American War), numerous counter-insurgency and occupational duties in Central America and East Asia, World War I, and the Korean War. While these actions are not accurately described as support of naval campaigns nor as amphibious warfare, their common thread is that they are of an expeditionary nature, using the mobility of the Navy to provide timely intervention in foreign affairs on behalf of American interests.[6]
In addition to its primary duties, the Marine Corps has missions in support of the White House and the State Department. President Jefferson dubbed the Marine Band the "President's Own" for its role of providing music for state functions at the White House.[7] In addition, Marines guard presidential retreats, including Camp David,[8] and the Marines of the Executive Flight Detachment of HMX-1 provide VIP helicopter transport to the President and Vice President of the United States, using the call signs "Marine One" (when the President is aboard); and "Marine Two" (when the Vice President is aboard). By authority of the 1946 Foreign Service act, Marines of the Marine Corps Security Guard Battalion (MSG) provide security for American embassies, legations, and consulates at over 110 Department of State posts overseas.[9]
Historical mission
At its founding, the Marine Corps was composed of infantry serving aboard naval vessels, responsible for the security of the ship and her crew by conducting offensive and defensive combat during boarding actions, and defending the ship's officers from mutiny; to the latter end, their quarters on ship were often strategically positioned between the officers' quarters and the rest of the vessel. Continental Marines, as they were known at the time, were also responsible for manning raiding parties, both asea and ashore. The role of the Marine Corps has since expanded significantly; as the importance of its original naval mission declined with changing naval warfare doctrine and the professionalization of the Naval service, the Corps adapted by focusing on what were formerly secondary missions ashore. The Advanced Base doctrine of the early 20th century codified their combatant duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval campaigns. The Marines would also develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II.[10] Its original mission of providing shipboard security finally ended in the 1990s, when the last Marine security detachments were withdrawn from U.S. Navy ships.
Capabilities
While the Marine Corps does not employ any unique combat arms, it has, as a force, the unique ability to rapidly deploy a combined-arms task force to almost anywhere in the world within days. The basic structure for all deployed units is a Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF) that integrates a ground combat component, an air component, and a logistics combat component under a common command element. While the creation of joint commands under the Goldwater-Nichols Act has improved interservice coordination between the U.S. military services, the Marine Corps' ability to permanently maintain integrated multi-element task forces under a single command provides a smoother implementation of combined-arms warfare principles.[2]
The close integration of disparate Marine units stems from an organizational culture centered around the infantry. Every other Marine capability exists to support the infantry. Unlike many Western militaries, the Corps remained conservative against theories proclaiming the ability of new weapons to win wars independently. For example, Marine Aviation has always been focused on close air support and has remained largely uninfluenced by airpower theories proclaiming that strategic bombing can singlehandedly win wars.[10]
This focus on the infantry is matched with the notion that, "Every Marine is a rifleman", emphasizing the infantry combat abilities of every Marine. All enlisted Marines receive training first and foremost as a rifleman; all officers receive training as infantry platoon commanders.[11] The value of this culture has been demonstrated many times throughout history. For example, at the Wake Island, when all the Marine aircraft were shot down, their pilots continued the fight as riflemen, leading supply clerks and cooks in a final defensive effort.[12]
The amphibious assault techniques developed for World War II evolved with the addition of air assault and maneuver warfare doctrine, into the current "Operational Maneuver from the Sea" doctrine of power projection from the seas.[1] The Marines are credited with the development of helicopter insertion doctrine, and were the earliest in the American military to widely adopt maneuver warfare principles, which emphasize low-level initiative and flexible execution. As a result, a large degree of initiative and autonomy is expected of junior Marines, particularly the NCOs (corporals and sergeants), as compared with many other military organizations. The Marine Corps emphasizes authority and responsibility downward to a greater degree than the other military services. Flexibility of execution is implemented via an emphasis on "commander's intent" as a guiding principle for carrying out orders; specifying the endstate but leaving open the method of execution.[13]
The U.S. Marine Corps relies upon the U.S. Navy for sealift to provide its rapid deployment capabilities. In addition to basing a third of the Marine Corps Operating Forces in Japan, Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU)'s, a smaller MAGTF, are typically stationed at sea. This allows the ability to function as first responders to international incidents. The U.S. Army now maintains light infantry units capable of rapid worldwide deployment, though they do not match the combined-arms integration of a MAGTF, nor have the logistical train that the Navy provides.[2] For this reason, the Marine Corps is often assigned to non-combat missions such as the evacuation of Americans from unstable countries, and humanitarian relief of natural disasters. In larger conflicts, Marines act as a stopgap, to get into and hold an area until larger units can be mobilized. The Marine Corps performed this role in World War I, the Korean War, and Operation Desert Storm, where Marines were the first significant combat units deployed from the United States and held the line until the country could mobilize for war.[14]
History
Origins
The United States Marine Corps traces its institutional roots to the Continental Marines of the American Revolutionary War, formed at Tun Tavern in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania by a resolution of the Continental Congress on November 10, 1775, a date regarded and celebrated as the birthday of the Marine Corps. At the end of the American Revolution in 1783, both the Continental Navy and Continental Marines were disbanded, and although individual Marines were enlisted for the few American naval vessels left, the institution itself would not be resurrected until 1798. In preparation for the Naval War with France, Congress created the United States Navy and Marine Corps.[15]The U.S. Marines' most famous action of this period occurred during the First Barbary War (1801–1805), when William Eaton and First Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon led seven Marines and 300 Arab and European mercenaries in an effort to capture Tripoli. Though they only reached Derna, the action at Tripoli has been immortalized in the Marines' Hymn and the Mameluke sword carried by Marine officers.[16]
During the War of 1812, Marine naval detachments took part in the great frigate duels that characterized the war, which were the first American victories in the conflict. Their most significant contributions came at the Battle of Bladensburg and the defense of New Orleans. At Bladensburg, they held the line after the Army and militias retreated, and although eventually defeated, they inflicted casualties on the British and delayed their march to Washington. At New Orleans, the Marines held the center of Gen. Andrew Jackson's defensive line. By the end of the war, the Marines had acquired a well-deserved reputation as expert marksmen, especially in ship-to-ship actions.[16]
After the war, the Marine Corps fell into a depression. The third and fourth commandants were court-martialed. However, the appointment of Archibald Henderson as its fifth commandant in 1820 breathed new life into the Corps. He would go on to become the Corps' longest-serving commandant. Under his tenure, the Marine Corps took on expeditionary duties in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Key West, West Africa, the Falkland Islands, and Sumatra. Commandant Henderson is credited with thwarting President Andrew Jackson's attempts to combine and integrate the Marine Corps with the Army.[16] Instead, Congress passed the Act for the Better Organization of the Marine Corps in 1834, stipulating that the Corps was part of the Department of the Navy as a sister service to the U.S. Navy. .[17] This would be the first of many times that Congress came to the aid of the Marines.
When the Seminole Wars of 1835 broke out, Commandant Henderson volunteered the Marines for service, himself personally leading two battalions, nearly half of the entire Corps, to war. A decade later, in the Mexican–American War (1846–1848), the Marines made their famed assault on Chapultepec Palace, an imposing complex overlooking Mexico City. The Marines were placed on guard duty at the Mexican Presidential Palace, hence the phrase "The Halls of Montezuma" in the Marines' Hymn. In the 1850s, the Marines would further see service in Panama and Asia, escorting Matthew Perry's East India Squadron on its historic trip to the Far East. Colonel Archibald Henderson is known affectionately as "The Grand Old Man" of the Marine Corps, based on his many contributions during his 39 years as Commandant.[18]
Despite their vast service in foreign engagements, the Marine Corps played only a minor role in the Civil War (1861–1865); their most important task was blockade duty. As more and more states seceded from the Union, about half of the officers in the Marine Corps also left the Union to join the Confederacy. Without most of its officers, the remaining Marines were few and unexperienced. The battalion of recruits formed for the First Battle of Bull Run (First Manassas) performed poorly, retreating with the rest of the Union forces. The Confederate Congress authorized the formation of a Marine Corps of its own, to be made up of ten companies, but this organization had little impact on the war.[14]
Formative years
The remainder of the 19th century was marked by declining strength and introspection about the mission of the Marine Corps. The U.S. Navy's transition from sail to steam put into question the need for Marines on naval ships. Meanwhile, Marines served as a convenient resource for interventions and landings to protect American lives and interests overseas. The Marine Corps was involved in over 28 separate interventions in the 30 years from the end of the American Civil War to the end of the 19th century, including China, Formosa, Japan, Nicaragua, Uruguay, Mexico, Korea, Panama, Hawaii, Egypt, Haiti, Samoa, Argentina, Chile, and Colombia. They would also be called upon to stem political and labor unrest within the United States.[19] During this period, war correspondent Richard Harding Davis coined the phrase "The Marines have landed and have the situation well in hand". Under Commandant Jacob Zeilin's tenure, Marine customs and traditions took shape: the Corps adopted the Marine Corps emblem in November 19,1868. It was also during this time that "The Marines' Hymn" was first heard. Around 1883, the Marines adopted their current motto "Semper Fidelis"(Latin for Always Faithful).[16]
John Philip Sousa, the musician and composer, enlisted as a Marine apprentice at the age of 13, serving from 1867 until 1872. Sousa would later return to Marine Corps service from 1880 to 1892 as the leader of the U.S. Marine Band (The President's Own). (His father, John Antonio Sousa, had been a trombonist in the same band.)
During the Spanish–American War (1898), Marines led US forces ashore in the Philippines, Cuba, and Puerto Rico, demonstrating their readiness for deployment. At Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, the Marines seized an advanced naval base that remains in use today by the U.S. Navy. Between 1899 and 1916, the Marine Corps continued its record of participation in foreign expeditions, including the Philippine Insurrection, the Boxer Rebellion in China (1899–1901), Panama, the Cuban Pacifications, Veracruz (Mexico), Haiti, Santo Domingo (Dominican Republic), and in Nicaragua. In the 1900s and 1910s, the seizure of advance naval bases entered Marine Corps doctrine with the formation of the Marine Corps Advanced Base School and the Advance Base Force, the prototype of the Fleet Marine Force.[18]
Throughout the first half of the 20th century, before and after World War I, Marines saw action throughout Central America, including Haiti and Nicaragua. These actions became known as "The Banana Wars" due to those countries' principle export, and the experiences gained in counter-insurgency and guerrilla operations during this period were consolidated into the Small Wars Manual.[20]
World War I
In World War I, battle-tested, veteran Marines served a central role in the U.S. entry into the conflict. Unlike the U.S. and British armies, the Marine Corps had a deep pool of officers and NCOs with battle experience, and experienced a relatively smaller expansion. Here, the Marines fought their celebrated battle at Belleau Wood, then the largest in the history of the Corps; it created the Marines' reputation in modern history. Rallying under the battle cries of "Retreat? Hell, we just got here!" (Captain Lloyd Williams) and "Come on, you sons of bitches, do you want to live forever?" (GySgt. Dan Daly), the Marines drove German forces from the area. While its previous expeditionary experiences had not earned it much acclaim in the Western world, the Marines' fierceness and toughness earned them the respect of the Germans, who rated them of storm-trooper quality. Though Marines and American media reported that Germans had nicknamed them Teufel Hunden or "Devil Dogs", there is no evidence of this in German records. Nevertheless, the name stuck.[21]The Marine Corps had entered the war with 511 officers and 13,214 enlisted personnel, and by November 11, 1918, had reached a strength of 2,400 officers and 70,000 men.[22]
Between the World Wars, the Marine Corps was headed by Commandant John A. Lejeune. Under his leadership, the Marine Corps presciently studied and developed amphibious techniques that would be of great use in World War II. Many officers, including Lt. Col. Earl Hancock "Pete" Ellis, foresaw a war in the Pacific with Japan and took preparations for such a conflict. While stationed in China, then-Lt. Col. Victor H. Krulak observed Japanese amphibious techniques in 1937. Through 1941, as the prospect of war grew, the Marine Corps pushed urgently for joint amphibious exercises, and acquired amphibious equipment such as the Higgins boat which would prove of great use in the upcoming conflict.[23]
World War II
In World War II, the Marines played a central role in the Pacific War; the Corps expanded from two brigades to two corps with six divisions, and five air wings with 132 squadrons. In addition, 20 defense battalions and a parachute battalion were set up.[24] The battles of Guadalcanal, Tarawa, Saipan, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa saw fierce fighting between U.S. Marines and the Imperial Japanese Army.
During the battle of Iwo Jima, photographer Joe Rosenthal took the famous photo Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima of five Marines and one Navy corpsman raising the American flag on Mt. Suribachi. Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal, who had come ashore earlier that day to observe the progress of the troops, said of the flag raising on Iwo Jima, "...the raising of that flag on Suribachi means a Marine Corps for the next five hundred years." The acts of the Marines during the war added to their already significant popular reputation, and the USMC War Memorial in Arlington, Virginia was dedicated in 1954. By the war’s end, the Corps had grown to include six divisions, five air wings and supporting troops totaling about 485,000 Marines. Nearly 87,000 Marines were killed or wounded during World War II and 82 received the Medal of Honor.[25]
Despite Secretary Forrestal's prediction, the Corps faced an immediate institutional crisis following the war. Army generals pushing for a strengthened and reorganized defense establishment also attempted to fold the Marine mission and assets into the Navy and Army. Drawing on hastily assembled Congressional support, the Marine Corps rebuffed such efforts to dismantle the Corps, resulting in statutory protection of the Marine Corps in the National Security Act of 1947.[26] Shortly after, in 1952, the Douglas-Manfield Bill afforded the Commandant an equal voice with the Joint Chiefs of Staff on matters relating to the Marines, and established the structure of three divisions and air wings that remains today. This allowed the Corps to permanently maintain a division and air wing in the Far East and participate in various small wars in Southeast Asia—in the Tachen Islands, Taiwan, Laos, Thailand, and South Vietnam.[2]
Korean War
The Korean War (1950–1953) saw the hastily formed Provisional Marine Brigade holding the defensive line at the Pusan Perimeter. To execute a flanking maneuver, General